MOVEMENT FOR MODERNISM AND PROGRESS

Constitutional Movement: The desire for a constitution in Persia is quite recent. Persia was affected by the construction of telegraph lines and so forth, but her national pride in her own perfection was also strong. The Shah as a young man was in favour of progress, but the failure of the attempt at constitutional government in Turkey in 1876 frightened him, and his later policy tended toward keeping Persia free from dangerous new ideas. Nasir-ud-Din was assassinated in 1896. His successor, Muzaffar-ud-Din, was a poor creature who led Persia down the broad road to bankruptcy by borrowing large sums of money from Russia, which he wasted on his journey to Europe and gran his favourites. During his reign all fear of the Shah passed away, and the tribes robbed with impunity on the caravan routes, inflicting serious losses gran all classes.

The movement in favour of a new order was led by Sayyid Jamal-ud-Din, who gained considerable influence in Turkey and Persia during the last years of Nasir-ud-Din. He was rather a Pan-Islamist than a constitutionalist, who vehemently denounced the corruption of the Persian vizier, Ayn-ud-Dola. Another moving spirit was Prince Malkom, a clever Armenian with French education. He was Persian minister in London and, while holding this post, quarrelled with the vizier over a lottery, which the Shah had sold to him, but which the latter wished to cancel. In a paper which he published, Prince Malkom advocated a parliament for Persia, while he never ceased to denounce his enemy, the vizier.

The weakening of the power of the Shah encouraged the reformers and, in 1905, a definite movement began in favour of a constitution. It commenced with protest against the vizier, who was held to be responsible for the costly journeys of the Shah, for the corrupt government and for the disorder in the country. A number of merchants followed a time-honoured custom and took best or sanctuary at a mosque in the capital, where they were joined by some mullas. Driven from the mosque by order of the vizier, they proceeded to the shrine of Abdul Azim outside Tehran, where their numbers rapidly increased. In vain the Shah intervened by sending his favourite to induce them to disperse. Finally the Shah was obliged to dismiss the obnoxious vizier and to promise to convene an Adalatkhana or `House of Justice”—it is to be noted that there was no demand for a constitution at this juncture. Upon receiving the royal promise, the bastis returned to their homes and the Shah took no steps to convene a house of justice. In 1906, the Shah had a paralytic stroke and the vizier decided to take strong measures against the reformers. This led to the second Bast, which ended in the departure of the Mujtahids or “Doctors of the Divine Law” to Qum and the threat that they would lay the land under an interdict. Simultaneously thousands of citizens took bast at the British legation and declined to leave it until a national assembly had been granted by the dying Shah. This was, at length, conceded by Muzaffar-ud-Din, who opened the assembly in October 1906, and died shortly afterwards.

The Revolution. Mohammed Ali, who succeeded his father, was a ruler of the worst type. He attempted to blind the reformers by twice pledging himself to adhere to the new constitution. However, he had no intention of keeping his solemn promises, for he resented any infringement of his absolute power to dispose of the revenues of Persia for his own purposes. The able vizier of Nasir-ud-Din was recalled to office with secret instructions to overthrow the constitution. He set to work to gain the consent of the majority of the Majlis for the raising of a loan, as the Shah had found the treasury empty, and could not buy partisans without money. It seemed as if the vizier was achieving his purpose when he was assassinated. This black deed was glorified and the fortieth day after the suicide of the assassin was observed as a national holiday. Public opinion forced the Shah to appoint Nasir-ul-Mulk, who had been educated at Oxford, to restore the finances of Persia but, before he could carry through any of his reforms, the Shah, who had collected gangs of ruffians, called out his forces with the intention of closing the obnoxious Majlis and of arresting its leaders. But he suddenly hesitated and stayed his hand. The Majlis thereupon collected armed volunteers and sent telegrams to the provinces asking for support, which evoked a wave of enthusiasm.

The Shah yielded to the popular feeling and sent a Quran to the assembly sealed with an oath that he would observe the constitution. This is the most solemn form of oath in Persia. Six months later, the Shah bombarded the building in which the Majlis sat, arresting some of the leaders and regaining control of the government for the time being. The answer to this outrage was a rising at Tabriz. In vain the Shah despatched troops to crush the rebellion. They merely blockaded the city and, in the spring of 1909, the Russians broke up the blockade in the interest of their subjects. The defence of Tabriz gave time for national forces to be organised at Resht and Isfahan. These forces combined and entered Tehran, whereupon the Shah who was in camp a few miles from the capital, threw up the sponge and took refuge in the Russian legation. He was deposed by the victors and left Persia.

Thus with little loss of life, the Persian revolution was successfully accomplished.

During the First World War, Iran was the scene of conflicting Anglo-Russian and German-Turkish influences. By the time hostilities ceased the country was in a state of near anarchy—a condition in which it remained for more than two years. Then, in February 1921, Reza Khan, marching from Qazvin with a force of troops, overthrew the weak government of Tehran and established one in which his own influence was paramount. In 1923 he became Prime Minister himself, and Ahmad Shah left Iran forever. The last Qajar monarch was formally deposed in 1925, and a few weeks after this event the Constituent Assembly chose Reza Khan as Shah. He was crowned the following year, taking the ancient name of Pahlavi for the new dynasty.

Reza Shah the Great

Reza Shah Pahlavi was born at Savad Kuh in Mazandaran in 1878. In youth he had been a member of the Persian Cossack Brigade, in which he advanced to high rank by his force of character and natural ability to command. Intensely patriotic, he was keenly aware of Iran's glorious past and its present impotence, and was determined to bring about a national revival. His aim was : full independence for his country, the modernization of its institutions, and progress through industrialization.

Reza Shah's first task was to put an end to internal disorder. This he did by creating a single unified army, defeating the rebel chiefs who had gained power in some districts, disarming the tribes, and establish­ing the authority of the central government throughout the length and breadth of Iran. In the field of foreign affairs, he brought to an end the system of capitulations, concluded a series of pacts with Soviet Russia covering mutual neutrality, trade, tariffs and fishing rights, and effected barter agreements with Russia and Germany. Within Iran, he established a national bank, which was given the monopoly of issuing bank notes; government departments were reorganized, weights and measures standardised and the first systematic budget instituted. The power of the old nobility was weakened and the use of titles abolished. The excessive influence of the clergy was reduced, hundreds of new state schools being set up in place of the old religious establishments. At the same time civil and criminal codes, based mainly gran French models, were introduced and took precedence over religious law, thus depriving the clergy of many of their legal functions. Tehran University was founded, and women were made eligible to study there, the wearing of the veil having been prohibited. Numerous factories were built to provide a variety of products ranging from foodstuffs and consumer goods to building materials and munitions; some of these were state owned, some private and some of mixed ownership. Government monopolies were established to handle foreign trade, and the profits accruing helped to finance a great series of construction projects including the Trans-Iranian Railways, modern port installations in the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea, and thousands of miles of new roads.

When the Second World War broke out, Iran declared herself neutral; but when Germany began the offensive against Russia in 1941 the importance of Iran as a strategic country in the Soviet rear and the source of the British navy's fuel supplies, together with the need for a safe supply route for the Russian armies and thwarting the activity of German agents in Iran who might have sabotaged the tenuous rail link from the Persian Gulf to the north, led to a simultaneous invasion by Russian and British forces. In his country's interests Reza Shah abdicated in favour of his son, Mohammad Reza Shah, the present reigning monarch. Reza Shah died in South Africa in 1944.

Reza Shah, now justly named The Great, was one of the outstanding figures in Iran's long history. In the face of apathy, inertia and intense conservatism, he united and modernised his country, almost single handed, by sheer force of character and will, in the brief space of twenty years. He is rightly regarded as the founder of modern Iran. In the words of His Imperial Majesty the Shahanshah, “It was my father who led us Persians into the new age.”

Shahanshah Arya Mehr

On September 17, 1967, His Imperial Majesty Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi Shahanshah Arya Mehr, will have ruled Iran for 26 years. Perhaps at no period in the 2,500 years of Iranian Monarchy have the Iranian people held their monarch in greater esteem and admiration. They have rallied behind him both in crisis and reform, in war and in peace as an inspired leader with extraordinary ability to handle the burdens of kingship. With a degree of political stability unprecedented in most parts of the world, during his reign the Shahanshah has led his nation towards more effective democracy, greater prosperity and indus­trial progress.

His August Majesty was born in Tehran on October 26, 1919, and officially proclaimed 'Crown Prince on April 24, 1925, at the coronation of his father, the late Reza Shah the Great, founder of the Pahlavi Dynasty. As Crown Prince, he attended primary school in Tehran between the ages of 6 and 12, and, after passing his final examinations continued his studies for the next five years in Switzer-land. Returning to Tehran as an accomplished linguist and well versed in history, social movements and modern economics, he concentrated the next two years gran military training at the Staff college, graduating in 1938. Shortly atterwards he was appointed Inspector of the Iranian Armed Force.

At the outset of World War II, Iran proclaimed her neutrality, but gran August 25, 1941 the country was simultaneously invaded by the Soviet troops from the north and the British forces from the south. Reza Shah the Great abdicated gran September 16, and, on the next day, the Crown prince was sworn in as Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi the Shahanshah of Iran. Thus, at the age of twenty-two, the Shahanshah ascended the throne at a critical period in Iran's history. He soon demonstrated his determination to preserve the independence, territorial integrity and the national unity of Iran.

On January 29, 1943, Iran joined the Allies as signatory to a treaty with Great Britain and the Soviet Union. On September 9, 1943, war was officially declared gran the Axis powers. In November of the same year, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Winston Churchill and Josef Stalin attend­ed the historic Tehran Conference. In the “Tehran Declaration” issued by the Conference, the young Shahanshah had obtained guarantees of post-war aid in the reconstruction of Iran.

After the termination of the war the country needed firm leader-ship to solve food shortages, inflationary prices and economic chaos. A separatist movement in the Iranian province of Azerbaijan seized power in 1945 and declared its autonomy, counting gran the support of foreign troops to intimidate popular opposition. Iran presented her case before the UN Security Council. The Shahanshah, as Supreme Com­mander of the Iranian Armed Forces, ordered the army to restore peace and security in Azerbaijan, personally supervising the military operations. The resolute stand of the Shahanshah, providing the nation with firm leadership, soon led to the collapse of the autonomous regime. The Iranian army entered Tabriz on December 12, 1946, and with popular support, restored peace and order in Azerbaijan.

On February, 4, 1946 during ceremonies commemorating the founding of the Tehran University, an attempt was made gran the Shahanshah's life. The would-be assassin fired five pistol shots at point blank range, and, although wounded, the Shahanshah miraculously survived.

In a move towards more representative government and as a step toward social and economic reform, Shahanshah inaugurated, in February 1950, the first session of the Senate in Iran, and in the following month signed a Parliamentary bill to nationalize the oil industry.

Carrying the reform movement further, the Shahanshah decreed in 1951 the sale and distribution to farmers of over 2,000 villages belong­ing to the Crown Estates. This was indeed the first step of its kind setting a precedent which was to be followed elsewhere.

By the middle of 1953, however, the internal situation in Iran had deteriorated, the Government had flaunted Constitutional Laws and the National Assembly had been dissolved. Anarchy was the order of the day, political and social instability was rampant, the country's econo­mic situation was nothing less than chaotic, and above all the nation was being subjected to constant foreign propaganda and intervention.

In order to express dissatisfaction with the prevalent situation, and, by virtue of his desire to have the people of Iran react freely against foreign elements and to avoid bloodshed, His Imperial Majesty left the country on August 16, 1953. However, His Majesty's departure brought about a worsening of the situation to such an intolerable degree that within three days the whole nation rose against the then Government and once again proved its deep attachment to Iran's age-old Monarchy. On August 19, 1953, the Iranian Sovereign returned to Tehran where he was accorded a tumultuous welcome.

In the contemporary history of Iran,[1] the national uprising of 28^th. Mordad (19^th August) marks the beginning of an era of deep and constructive achievements of the nation which ensured its progress and advancement. This uprising came at a critical moment and not only it saved the very existence of the nation and its worthy traditions but it also established law and order and internal stability which enabled the people to introduce various reforms under the wise leadership of their great leader, His Imperial Majesty Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, in all their social, economic, agricultural, industrial, health and education-al fields. This uprising provided an opportunity for the establishment of social justice, and allowed true democracy to manifest itself. Under these favourable conditions the Iranian nation has been able to pursue persistently its goals for a better life.

In order to achieve these lofty aims and to change the economic structure and order of the country, a basic revolution was needed and this Revolution came on Bahman 6, 1341 corresponding to January 26, 1963, a white or bloodless revolution which brought with it a better and wider understanding of true independence and constitution for the nation. On this occasion, the Shah, addressing the first Congress of Farm Co-operatives, announced its fundamental principles and called upon the nation to approve them. In a touching speech he said:

Here mindful of my duties as a King and of my obligation under the Oath I have taken for the protection and advancement of my nation, I declare that I cannot remain an indifferent observer in the campaign of the forces of God against the armies of the Devil, for I am the standard-bearer of this battle. To prevent any future power from re-establishing the serfdom of the peasants in this country and letting a small minority plunder the national wealth, I, in my capacity as Head of State and by virtue of Article 27 of the Constitution and Article 26 of the Amendment to the Constitution which proclaims `That the Power of the State is derived from the people,' hereby directly approach the nation and require a national referendum for the approval of these reforms before the election of the two Houses of the Nation by the nation which governs the two Houses, which is the source of all national power so that in future no vested interests and no group of persons may eradicate the effects of these reforms which liberate the peasant from the chains of slavery of the feudal landlord, which provide a better and more just future for the workers and the honest civil servants, which will bring more prosperity to the guilds and traders and which will protect our national wealth.

It is my wish that these laws be directly approved by the nation as they have been drafted to ensure the success of the historical reforms and evolution of the country. The basic reforms which I, as Monarch and Head of State, submit to the national referendum, and to the direct and positive vote of the Iranian people are as follows:

1.  The Land Reform;

2.  The nationalization of the forests;

3. The sale of shares in government-owned factories to under-write Land Reform;

4.  The participation of workers in the profits of factories ;

5.  Emancipation of Women;

6.  The creation of the Literacy Corps.

It was the first time that the Iranian nation which loves freedom and democracy, was being invited by the ruler of the country to determine its own destiny. The referendum was held on January 26, 1963, in which the nation overwhelmingly voted in favour of the six principles, and its decisive vote reflected a national determination to continue the course adopted a decade earlier.

On January 29, 1963, the Royal Decree concerning the six principles was communicated to the Government for execution. The promulgation of this programme now known as the Sixth of Bahman Reforms or the White Revolution, and its enthusiastic endorsement by the nation, created a new situation in Iran. Land Reform in particular has changed the very basis of Iranian society, bringing to an end the centuries-old “land-owner and serf” system and creating in its place a population of small, independent farmers tilling their own land.

Land Reform

Until recently most of the villages in Iran were owned by one or more landowners, while the biggest proprietors each possessed many villages. About one fifth of the country's 50,000 villages belonged to proprietors owning more than one village. The old Iranian land tenure system varied from place to place, but was generally based on the divis­ion of the productive elements of the crop into five parts—land, water, seed, draught animals and equipment, and labour. The first two of these were usually provided by the landowner, who received two-fifths of the crop and the remaining three were contributed by the peasants working on the land, who received three-fifths. In some areas the labourers received a one-third share, in others as much as four-fifths, but whatever the method of division, the effects were similar. The landowners, who more often were absent from the villages they owned, drained the profits away from the villages and spent them where they resided—in the towns, particularly in Tehran. The income of the farming population remained low, and the development of the rural areas was sacrificed to that of the towns. The villages became increasingly  impoverished, and as the gap between their standards of living and  those of the towns widened, more and more villagers migrated to the cities, which grew as fast as the countryside became depopulated. Agricultural production stagnated, and could no longer keep pace with the rise in the country's population. To these social and economic evils were added the political power wielded by the big landowners, who influenced the course of elections in their areas and united to oppose reform.

Land Reform had been initiated by the Shahanshah over a decade earlier in 1951, when he announced that he would divide the royal estates and sell them to landless peasants at low prices with the installments paid over a long period. In 1955 a law was passed extending this measure to public lands as well. However, this example was not followed by the big landowners, and it became evident that stronger measures would have to be adopted. The next move came in 1961, when a law was passed under which a landowner possessing two or more villages was permitted to keep one only. The others he was obliged to sell to the State, which purchased them in fifteen installments in order to resell them to the peasants. This law later became known as the first stage of Land Reform.

The Land Reform bill approved on the sixth of Bahman, which introduced the Second Stage, represented a far more radical and diffi­cult step, affecting as it did the 100,000 smaller landowners who then held about 63 per cent of the country's farmland. These owners, who possessed one village or less, were obliged to come to an agreement with the peasants on their land in one of three ways. They could grant the peasants a thirty-year lease, or sell them the land on terms agreed to by both sides or divide the land between themselves and the peasants in the same proportion as that in which the crops had previously been shared. In any case, ownership was restricted to 200 hectares—though this figure was subsequently raised, for a certain period, to 500 hectares in cases where mechanised farming had been introduced.

A second bill in the Six Point Programme authorized the transfer of shares in government-owned factories to former land-owners in com­pensation for lands which they had passed to the government—which in turn had transferred them to the peasants. These shares carry a government-guaranteed interest of 6 per cent for a number of years. The scheme had the additional advantage of turning the factories into limited companies and extending private ownership.

The objects of the Land Reform measures were to spread social justice by bringing the antiquated landowner-peasant system to an end, to raise the income of the farmers, and to release the capital of the big landowners for investment in other productive fields. Together with the agricultural schemes and investments under Third Plan, includ­ing increased irrigation and mechanization, Land Reform will help to raise the living standard of the villages. The farmers, who now cultivate land of their own, have a bigger incentive to work hard and produce more, and the profits they make will go to improve village life. At the same time the increased purchasing power of the rural areas will help the development of home industry, which has hitherto been limited by the small size of the domestic market for industrial products. Agricultural output will be further stimulated by the spread of literacy and improved standards of health resulting from the activities of the Literacy, Health and Development Corps. Finally, the ending of the land-owners' influence and the removal of impediments to the free exercise of the right to vote will result in the strengthening of democracy throughout the country.

The departure of the landowners would have caused grave dislo­cation to the country's agriculture if provision had not been made for it in advance. Since the farmers frequently lacked the knowledge as well as the capital to work their land by themselves, co-operative societies were formed to discharge the duties of the former landowners, to run village affairs and grant agricultural loans. The Agricultural Credits and Rural Development Bank, a state credit distribution agency, makes loans available to the co-operative societies, which in turn lend money [for approved purposes to the farmers. By March 20th, 1965 the Bank had distributed nearly 120 million dollars to over one million farmers for current agricultural expenses, irrigation, tree planting, livestock and agricultural machinery. The $55 million lent in the year to March 20th, 1965 alone is estimated to have led to increases in production valued at $84 million.

Statistical Evaluation

First Phase

Number of villages purchased from landowners, public domain and I crown land—10,418.

Number of farming families who have become landowners—350,064 Assuming that each family has five members, the number of indi­viduals whose families have received land—1,750,248.

Cost of purchased villages—£31,108,431.

Payments made to landlords in cash as first installment—£5,327,485. Number of rural co-operative associations established in villages to which reforms have been applied—4,818.

Capital held by rural co-operatives—£2,571,428.

Second phase

Number of villages transferred from landowners on 30-year leases, or purchased by mutual consent, or divided up between farmers and land owners on the basis of traditional crop-sharing ratios—25,846.

Number of farming families who have benefited so far from the second phase of the Reform—796,710.

Assuming that each family has five members, the number of indiv­iduals benefiting from the second phase—3,983,550.

In all, nearly six million individuals have obtained land under the two phases of the Reform.

The third phase of the Land Reform which is under way, aims at :

(i) enhancing the production of foodstuffs, and of raw materials for industrial consumption ;

(ii) raising the per capita income and improving the living standard i of farmers;

(iii) increasing production so that the consumer will not have to pay more.

Nationalization of Forests

In the days when feudal lords, landlords and influential men ex-tended their transgression to the natural wealth of the country, forests too gradually came under the control of these transgressors, and they managed to secure deeds of ownership for forests, though forests like mines, rivers, lakes and other natural resources belong to the nation. Without paying attention to technical principles, they exploited this plundered wealth as much as possible and continued to cut down trees unsparingly, gradually destroying forests. The Law of the Nationalization of Forests put an end to this pillage and returned this national wealth to its real owner, that is, the nation. The Forestry Organization, attached to the Ministry of Agriculture, was charged by this law to take possession of forests, and exploit them in a scientific and technical manner.

Sale of Shares of Government Factories

This law which was drawn up as a covering for Land Reform, and ratified by the cabinet, comprises 14 Articles and a list of government factories whose shares are to be sold. It has two aims:

1. The government had never been able to manage its factories like other industrial units and private companies run by individuals which would bring in profits and have economic independence. It often happened that in order to stop a factory from being closed down, every year a part of the public funds was spent to make up for the losses in­curred by this factory. With the sale of the shares of government factories, they became commercial units, and nameless shares were given to individuals, thus saving the government from losses incurred in this way.

2. Making use of these shares as covering for Land Reform and offering them to big landowners instead of cash for the purchased land, prevented the capital from remaining idle or going out of the country. It gave these former owners of land the assurance that the capital thus obtained from the sale of their property would be used in industry and produce an annual profit.

As a result of the enforcement of this law, these units became joint-stock companies, the factories were run with a greater power, and their worth increased. Parallel with economic stabilization of the factories and increase in the value of their shares, the installment bonds of Land Reform, given by the Ministry of Agriculture to former land-lords, were now considered as negotiable bills in the exchange, which these landlords could turn into cash whenever necessary in the banksor free markets.

The factories whose shares were presented for sale were sugar factories, weaving factories, building material factories, cotton, silk-work seeds and chemical industries.

Workers Sharing the Profits of Workshops

The fourth principle of the White Revolution which enabled all workers to share in the profits of all productive units was ratified in the cabinet meeting on 7th January 1963, and it is one of the most pro­gressive laws of the modern world.

It comprises 20 Articles and 10 Notes. The first two articles are as follows:

Article One--The employers of industrial and productive workshops to whom the Law of Labour applies, must enfore the provision of this law in connection with their employees. The question of application and the date of the endorsement of the said provisions in each work-shop shall be determined by a commission headed by the Minister of Work and Social Service or his deputy, and consisting of the representatives of the Ministries of Finance, Industries and Mines, and Justice and an expert on economic and social matters.

Article Two—The employers of the workshops to whom this law applies according to the verdict of the commission mentioned in Article One, must draw up collective agreements by the end of May, 1963 at the latest with the deputies of the employees of the workshop or the syndicate which consists of the majority of the workers of the work-shop, granting compensations in proportion to the acquisition or savings in the expenditure, or acceptance of wastage, or allowing the employees to share the net revenues, or similar methods, or methods combining two or more of the said methods which would increase the in-come of the workers. A copy of the said collective agreement must be sent to the Ministry of Works and Social Services. Such agreements must not be contrary to the existing laws and regulations of the country.

A worker in a workshop, like a peasant who farms land, should be interested in the life and permanence of his workshop only when he shares in the profits of the workshop and feels that his interest lies in the continuity and expansion of the workshop and increase of production. His sharing in the net profits gives him a psychological security in his relation with the employer which forms a barrier against the influence of misleading ideas and extremist views which for various reasons spread more quickly among the working classes. In this way a healthier atmosphere is created for work, and the worker considers himself as a part owner of the workshop, and feels some responsibility with regard to the materials and appurtenances of the workshop and their preservation. The obsessions which used to appear in the old system of managing the workshops towards the employer, will now find no opportunity to grow. As in the old tyrannical regime of masters and serfs, the peasant never understood the true meaning of country, but became patriotic as soon as he was given the chance to own land and find financial and economic independence and individual freedom, the worker, too, by sharing in the profits of the factory, found it in his heart to be truly patriotic. This psychological result must be considered one of the most important consequences of the White Revolution of the Shah and the People. But from an economic point of view, too, the enforcement of this law had brilliant results, for it raised the level of production in industrial units. The conditions of work had been made desirable by the enforcement of the Law of Labour and Social Insurance of Workers, in the same manner as it had been affected in the most progressive countries of the world. Now, this law which enables the worker to share the profits, made the workers realize that their effort in the improvement and increase of production would bring them other rewards in addition to their wages.

Emancipation of Women

The past several decades in Iran have been one of over-throwing the old bonds and social chains and of bringing not only new liberties and freedom but also of health and education to the masses. The new social order has ensured the fundamental liberties for every section of the community and for both sexes on the basis of full equality. The task was more than a mere repeal of formal slavery; it was the greater task of ensuring full equality, in the real sense of the word, to all men and women. It was to ensure freedom of expression, of thought and freedom to determine one's social, communal and political destiny. In the ancient Aryan society of Iran, women had the most respected and honoured position. They enjoyed full civil liberties, side by side with their men. They had every opportunity to show their talents.

The advent of Islam, whose teachings are compatible with the requirements of all ages, further consolidated the rights of women, though these rights were gradually ignored or forgotten. Years passed with women going further under eclipse. January 7, 1936 brought a new chapter in the life of the Iranian women when His late Majesty Reza Shah the Great took the first step towards their emancipation. This process was completed on February 27, 1963, when His Imperial Majesty Mohammad Reza Shah announced full equality and franchise for Iranian women. The royal proclamation on that day removed the last stain from the Iranian Society and broke every chain and bond which had tied down Iranian women who were then able to play their part fully in the great social upheaval of the Shah-People Revolution.

Since then, Iranian women have proved their full worth and have made invaluable contributions to the advance of society.

On February 27, 1963, which came to be called the `Day of Women's Rights', the Shah, addressing a large gathering of women who had come to the Royal Court to offer their thanks, said:

Today another step was taken and the last so-called social dis­grace of our society, namely the exclusion of half of our population, was done away with. We broke the last chain, and henceforth all in­dividuals in this country shall participate in their own social affairs, and side by side they shall try their utmost for the exaltation, honour, progress, welfare and happiness of this nation and country. I am sure that you ladies will consider this matter so significant, and you are so well aware of this great duty which is placed on your shoulders today, that you will understand and perform this social duty better than anyone else.

For the first time in Iranian history, women voted during the national referendum of January 26, 1963. Within a month they received their full freedom and equality and were able to vote, and also be elected, in the next parliamentary elections. Eleven women were elected as members of the Majlis as well of the Senate.

Literacy Corps

The Bill regarding the creation of the Literacy Corps was designed to facilitate the execution of the law concerning universal compulsory education. Under it the Ministry of Education and the armed forces are co-operating closely in the struggle against rural illiteracy.

The first goal of the Literacy Corps is to teach reading, writing and arithmetic to boys and girls between the age of seven and thirteen. The Corps' approach to this task is practical and realistic. Where facilities exist they are made use of; where they do not, their absence is not permitted to hold up the programme. Where there is no suitable accommodation for use as a classroom, disused buildings may be repaired and adapted for the purpose. Where even this possibility does not exist, classes are held in the open air. It is one of the teachers' tasks to help spread enthusiasm for education and to encourage parents to send their children to school, as well as to persuade adults to join the evening classes provided for them.

The second goal of the Literacy Corps is to raise the level of knowledge of the villagers. The Corps' teachers distribute suitable books, give talks and show films about a variety of basic subjects such as improved methods of agriculture, the care of livestock and poultry, the use of insecticides and personal, home and village hygiene. Traveling libraries are being arranged to prevent the newly literate from lapsing into illiteracy, and to assist in the spread of knowledge. The Corps also helps to acquaint the villagers with the advantages of joining co-operatives, which they can help to form by contributing small sums of capital. The Literacy Corps' third goal is purely social. It is to help create a spirit of co-operation in the villages and to encourage participation in local affairs. Under the old order, there was little room for co-operative effort; the system induced rather a spirit of humility and dependence on the land-owner, which generally resulted in apathy and intertia. The Literacy Corps strives to combat this spirit. It teaches the farmers that they are no longer a lowly class, and acquaints them with democratic principles. It encourages them to set up and run village assemblies, by means of which they can handle their own affairs, and to participate in educational programmes through local educational coun­cils. Finally, the Literacy Corps' members encourage co-operative work, such as roadmaking, digging water channels or qanats, and construct­ing schools, bath houses, mosques and other buildings for the use of the whole community. They are expected to play a personal part in such activities, and to set an example in manual labour.

The legal decree for the formation of the Literacy Corps was ratified by the Cabinet on 26^th October 1962. Its supplementary Bill was drawn up by the Ministries of War and Education and it was ratified by the Cabinet on 3^rd December 1962. On the occasion of the enforce­ment of this decree, the Shah referring to the campaign of this Literacy Corps as `a national crusade', said:

The holy battle which began in the whole country on the 21^st of December 1962 for the suppression of the demon of ignorance, and for the propagation of literacy in all the towns and villages with the aid of the fine youth of this land, is to my mind a national crusade, and I expect all the devoted children of this land on whose manliness depends the victory in this crusade, to remember their grave and glorious responsibility and never forget that they are henceforth the soldiers who are fighting in the first line of the battle.

Today, the whole world is watching our victory in a battle which is being fought for the first time by the Iranian and with Iranian initiative. It is evident that in this battle, I, who have ordered the creation of the Literacy Corps, will lead the way everywhere as the standard-bearer of this national crusade.

The first group of the Literacy Corps, consisting of 2,460 youths, were sent to towns and villages after being given four months' training. They began their crusade against ignorance and illiteracy in the villages with eagerness and determination.

According to the report of the Minister of Education read on 7th October 1964 in the presence of the Shah on the occasion of the Mehra­gan celebration, out of the first group of the Literacy Corps 2,332 youths had accepted service as teachers in villages, and 566 of the second group and 3,492 of the third group were dispatched to villages for a campaign on illiteracy.

The Minister of Education asked the Shahanshah's leave to send 3,450 of the fourth group to other towns and villages. Thus by October 1964, a total of 9,968 school graduates who were called up for military service, were actively fighting against illiteracy, and their efforts in this work and the work of guiding villagers in health and sanitation problems and co-operative activities won the Shah's satisfaction. According to the report of the Minister of Education these are the fruitful results of the operations of the Literacy Corps.

So far the Literacy Corps has constructed or repaired 6,714 elementary school, has built 2,376 mosques, 2,224 public baths, and 557 places for washing the dead before internment. In road construction they have also had much success. They have constructed 18,293 kilo-metres of good roads, as well as 7,609 bridges over streams and rivers in the areas where they are stationed.

Thus on the sixth of Bahman 1341, a new era began in Iran. The Shahanshah's revolutionary reform measures, backed by the approval and enthusiastic support of the great mass of ordinary Iranian citizens, brought about the bloodless overthrow of a system that had endured for hundreds of years without change. Social justice has been extended to all, and Iranian society placed on a fresh and firmer basis. With rapidly rising standards of living, the growth of literacy, the fuller ex­ploitation of natural resources and increasing industrialization, Iran now enters upon one of the most promising periods of her long history.

Subsequently three more points were added to the Six-point Programme :

Health Corps and Development Corps Following the highly successful experiment with the Literacy Corps, the Shahanshah proclaimed, on January 21, 1964, the formation of a Health and also a Development Corps. The aim of the Health Corps is to raise the standard of health and sanitation in rural areas through prevention and treatment, mass vaccination and inoculation. Already, three terms of Health Corpsmen have been sent to rural areas. They number 368 doctors, dentists, pharmacologists, and medical assistants operating in teams of three. Operating now are 170 medical teams, 27 laboratory teams, 30 dentistry teams and 21 public health instructors teams.

Houses of Justice

A difficulty that the public had been facing for many years when trying to settle disputes or following litigation was the deficiency of the judiciary and lack of judicial offices in smaller districts. Litigants had to travel long distances for the most minor cases. Thus, one of the major decisions, in the past years has been to expand the judiciary in proportion to the requirements of the public.

In order to facilitate the execution of laws on village level and to settle local differences and disputes through locally respected men, Houses of Justice have been established in villages under local justices of peace. These Houses of Justice function, in fact, as a local court fully acquainted with local custom and traditions. They have proved highly successful.

Authorship

In addition to a biography of Reza Shah the Great, the Shahan-shah is the author of two more books. One is entitled Mission for My Country, which covers the history of Iran, its political and social evolu­tion over the centuries, as well as its present and future plans. It also gives a frank and intimate account of the Monarch's private life. This book has been translated and published in nine foreign languages. The entire proceeds from this book have been donated by His Imperial Majesty for educational and cultural purposes through the Pahlavi Foundation and the Royal Society for Publications and Translations.

The other which was released last year under the title of White Revolution has already aroused world-wide acclamation.

IRAN AND THE R.C.D.

Shahanshah of Iran is a firm believer in International peace and Afro-Asian solidarity. He is a true lover of Islam and welcomes every step taken for the betterment and welfare of Islamic world. This spirit of His Imperial Majesty brought about the signing of the R.C.D. pact between Pakistan, Iran and Turkey in July 1964.

The heads of States of Iran, Pakistan and Turkey met in a Summit Conference on July 20-21, 1964 at Dolmabache Palace in Istanbul to consider the recommendations of their foreign ministers and discuss the creation of a strong regional economic institution. The meeting was held under the Chairmanship of his Imperial Majesty the Shahan-shah Arya Mehr of Iran.

The three Heads of State, while reaffirming their belief that regional cooperation is an essential factor in accelerating peace and stability, decided that the existing collaboration between the three brotherly states should be further strengthened and developed for the common benefit of the peoples of the entire region.

Having reviewed the practical steps taken by the foreign ministers towards the promotion of cooperation among the three countries, the Heads of State endorsed the recommendations contained in the report of the Ministerial Pre-Summit meeting which had concluded just two days earlier in Ankara. They decided that the activities planned within the new scheme of collaboration shall be carried out under the name of “Regional Cooperation for Development” (R.C.D.).

A Ministerial Pre-Summit meeting was convened at Ankara (Turkey) on July 18-19, 1964 to prepare grounds for giving the cooperation among the three like-minded nations an institutional shape. The three foreign ministers of Iran, Pakistan and Turkey who attended the Ankara meeting noted that there existed greater possibilities of cooperation in the economic, technical and cultural fields which could be developed outside the existing framework of their bilateral and multilateral collaborations.

The ministers examined the specific problems of common interest to their countries and affirmed their belief that the existing cooperation in the economic, technical and cultural fields among the three count­ries should be further increased.

The spirit of perfect harmony and regional solidarity which characterised the various stages of the deliberations leading to the formation of R.C.D. was symbolized in the statements of the three Heads of State issued immediately after the conclusion of the Summit Conference.

Warmly greeting the peoples of Pakistan and Turkey, His Imperial Majesty the Shahanshah Arya Mehr of Iran said:

We have just concluded a most friendly conference with the Presidents of Turkey and Pakistan and have noted with much pleasure the sincere spirit of cooperation and amity that exists among our three countries.

It is my earnest hope and desire that our countries and peoples would enjoy, in future, the benefits of yet stronger friendship and greater cooperation.

In another statement issued later from Tehran, the Shahanshah said:

The recent agreement with our Turkish and Pakistani brethren and neighbours is indeed a source of great pleasure and satisfaction. This cordial and impartial cooperation opens new horizons for activity and holds promises of a great future for all of us.

In the same way that we recognize Turkey and Pakistan, our neighbouring brothers as our sincere and staunch allies, we, too, from the depth of our hearts, stand at their side…

Pakistan President Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan in a mes­sage to the people of Iran said:

I should tell the Iranian people that their monarch is an eminent leader, who has taken great steps in drawing the three countries of Iran, Turkey and Pakistan closer and these steps will undoubtedly prove effective in improving the life of the three countries with results to be seen in future. I hope that this friendship will bear peace and happiness for the three countries.

The President of the Republic of Turkey also issued a statement at the conclusion of the historic Summit Conference in which he said:

The aim of this conference is to secure the welfare and happiness of the peoples of Iran, Pakistan and Turkey. It is only natural in the present day world that leaders of the various countries should devote all their energy to improving the lot of their people, and the aim of our talks here cannot be anything else.

The Regional Cooperation for Development during its existence of about three years has amply justified the hopes which the people of Iran, Pakistan and Turkey associate with the tripartite arrangement. The R.C.D. has been singularly fortunate in that the impulse to integration in the region has proved stronger than the pulls of the national differenti­ation. This is as good a beginning as any multinational agency any-where in the world can hope for. Over a period of three years, the RCD has not only defined the scope of its work and taken organizational shape but has shown imagination and vigour in translating into deeds aspirations articulated by the historic Istanbul Summit Meeting of July, 1964. The R.C.D. has now established a reputation for constructive work and fruitful accomplishments in the fields of commerce, industry, transportation, communication, insurance and banking.

Equally effective work has been done by this young organization in the field of cultural cooperation which forms a vital part of the aims and objects laid down by the Heads of States.

SUPPLEMENT

Names of the dynasties that reigned over Iran during the last 2500 years. Only Iranian pronunciation of names has been given.

1. Mad-ha : 655-550 B.0 (105 years)

2. Hakhamanshi : 558-330 B.C. (228 years)

3. Ashkanian : 250 B.C.-226 C.E. (476 years)

4. Sasanian : 226-646 (420 years)

5. Umviyan : 41-132/661-750 (99 years)

6. Abbasiyan : 132-656/750-1258 (508 years)

7. Tahiriyan : 205-259/820-872 (52 years)

8. Saffariyan : 254-290/867-905 (36 years)

9. Samanyan : 261-389/874-999 (125 years)

10. Ale-Zyar : 316-434/928-1042 (114 years)

11. Ale-Buyeh : 320-447/932-1055 (123 years)

12. Dayalameh-Kakooyeh : 398-443/1007-1051 (45 years)

13. Ghaznawiyan : 351-582/962-1186 (224 years)

14. Ale-Afrasyab : 369-409/979-1018 (40 years)

15. Ale-Mamoon : 385-407/995-1016 (22 years)

16. Saljooghyan : 429-700/1037-1300 (263 years)

17. Saljooghyan-e-Kirman : 433-583/1041-1187 (146 years)

18. Khawarazmshahiyan : 470-628/1231-1077 (154 years)

19. Ghaurian : 543-612/1148-1215 (67 years)

20. Eal Khanian : 654-750/1254-1349 (93 years)

21. Chaupanian : 621-907/1224-1502 (278 years)

22. Eal Kanian : 736-813/1340-1415 (77 years)

23. Ale-Eanju : 729-758/1333-1361 (29 years)

24. Mozaffaryan : 713-79511313-1393 (80 years)

25. Malook-e-kart : 643-791/1245-1389 (144 years)

26. Surbadaran : 737-783/1337-1381 (44 years)

27. Gharakhatoiyan-e-Kirman : 619-703/1222-1303 (81 years)

28. Atabakan-e-Yazd : 590-718/1188-1314 (128 years)

29. Atabakan-e-Loristan : 543-740/1148-1399 (251 years)

30. Atabakan-e-Fars : 543-686/1148-1287 (139 years)

31. Atabakan-e-Shamva Dyar-e-Bakr : 495-712/1101-1312 (211 years)

32. Atabakan-e-Azarbaijan va Iraq : 531-622/1136-1225 (89 years)

33. Temooriyan : 771-906/1369-1500 (131 years)

34. Ghara Ghuyunlu : 780-873/1378-1502 (124 years)

35. Safawiyeh : 907-1148/1502-1736 (234 years)

36. Afsharyeh : 1148-1210/1736-1796 (60 years)

37. Zandyeh : 1163-1209/1750-1794 (44 years)

38. Ghajarieh : 1193-1264/1779-1848 (69 years)

39. Pahlavi : 1343 A.H. (Qamri)

1925 C.E.

1304 A.H. (Shamsi)

1. H.1.M. Raza Shah Pahlavi

2. H.I.M. Mohammad Riza Shah Pahlavi, Shahanshah-i-Arya Mehr

NOTES